تروریست‌های جوان یا کودک‌سربازها؟ کودکان داعشی، حقوق بین‌الملل و قربانی شدن*

نوع مقاله : علمی - ترویجی

نویسندگان

1 دانشجوی دوره دکتری حقوق بین‌الملل، دانشگاه علوم اسلامی رضوی، خراسان رضوی، ایران.

2 عضو دپارتمان حقوق، دانشگاه دی مونتفورت، لستر

چکیده

از زمانی که درگیری‌ها در سوریه آغاز گردید، تعداد قابل‌توجهی از شهروندان کشورهای غربی به منطقه جنگی عزیمت کردند تا به دولت اسلامی شام و عراق (داعش)**** ملحق شوند. بر اساس تعاریف رایج، برخی از این افراد سفرکرده کودک هستند. پس از شکست داعش، کشورهای غربی با این معضل مواجه شدند که چگونه باید با این جنگجویان جوان رفتار کنند. وضعیت این کودکان بحث‌برانگیز شده بود. به‌نظر نمی‌رسد در میان کشورهای غربی موضع مشخص یا رویکردی ثابت درمورد چگونگی رفتار با این کودکان وجود داشته باشد. به‌نظر می‌رسد که رویکردهای موجود درمورد معضل این جوانان، عمدتاً توسط امیال سیاسی هر کشور دیکته شده باشد. به‌طور کلّی این کودکان به‌عنوان تروریست‌های جوانی شناخته می‌شوند که درصورت بازگشت به میهن، جوامع خود را در معرض خطر قرار می‌دهند. به هر تقدیر به‌نظر می‌رسد برداشت‌ها و واکنش‌ها نسبت به این اقلیت، از روش‌های هنجاری درمورد کودکان مرتبط با مخاصمات مسلحانه، اخذ می‌شود. پرونده شمیمه بیگم، نوجوان بریتانیایی، که به‌طور گسترده گزارش گردیده، درمورد وضعیت نگران‌کننده کودکانی که سابقاً با داعش مرتبط بودند زنگ خطری را به صدا درآورد. این مقاله پرونده‌ای را برای رفتار با کودکان مرتبط با داعش به‌عنوان کودک‌سرباز، ایجاد می‌کند. در بررسی‌های نزدیک، این کودکان مستحق دریافت حمایت‌هایی مطابق با تمام حمایت‌های انجام‌شده برای کودکان به‌کار گرفته‌شده برای اهداف جنگی می‌باشند. به‌نظر می‌رسد رویه قضایی اخیر به‌طور ضمنی بیان می‌دارد این حمایت‌ها حتی بعد از سن 18 سالگی پایان نمی‌یابد. باتوجه‌به مطالب مذکور، ممانعت از بازگشت به میهن برای هنجارسازی معیارها درمورد کودکان مرتبط با میدان جنگ، غیرضروری به‌نظر می‌رسد. به‌علاوه، رویکردهای برخی از کشورهای غربی می‌تواند به‌دلیل نقض حاکمیت قانون در معرض انتقاد باشد. لغو خودسرانه تابعیت و ممنوعیت بازگشت به میهن در تضاد کامل با هنجارهای عدالت طبیعی است. با وجود این، این مقاله مدعی است یک رویکرد ثابت، نیازمند رویکرد غربی در برخورد با کودکان داعشی اولاً به‌عنوان قربانی و پیروی از حقوق به‌رسمیت شناخته‌شده آ‫نها در حقوق بین‌الملل می‌باشد.



**** ISIS

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Young Terrorists or Child Soldiers? ISIS Children, International Law and Victimhood*

نویسندگان [English]

  • Seyyed Sadegh Mousavi Nezhad 1
  • Conrad Nyamutata 2
1 Ph.D. Student in International Law, Razavi Islamic Sciences University, Razavi Khorasan, Iran.
2 Department of Law, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
چکیده [English]

Since the Syrian conflict broke out, a significant number of Western citizens travelled to the warzone to join the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). By common definitions, some of the persons travelled as ‘children’. However, since the defeat of ISIS, Western countries are facing a conundrum on how to treat these young former fighters. The status of these children has been contentious. Among the Western countries, there does not seem to be a clear position or consistent approach on how such children should be treated. It would appear that the approaches towards the dilemma on these young persons have, predominantly, been dictated by the political whims of individual states. Generally, the children have been regarded as young “terrorists” likely to pose danger to Western societies if repatriated back. However, the perceptions and actions towards these minors seem to depart from the normative approaches to children associated with armed conflict. The widely reported case of British teenager Shamima Begum shone the spotlight on the predicaments of children formerly associated with ISIS. This article makes a case for the treatment of ISIS-associated children to be considered as child soldiers. When analyzed closely, these children deserve protections accorded to all children recruited for purposes of warfare. Recent case law seems to imply that such protection does not cease even after the age of 18 years. All considered, the denial of repatriation appears inimical to normative standards on children associated with armed conflict. Furthermore, the approaches of some of the Western countries could be vulnerable to criticism for violation of the rule of law. The arbitrary revocation of citizenship and barring of returns appear starkly in conflict with norms of natural justice. With this in mind, this article asserts that a consistent approach would require the Western approaches to treat ISIS-associated children as victims first and accord them protections recognized in international law.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • International Humanitarian Law
  • International Law
  • Child Soldiers
  • ISIS Child

فهرست منابع

A. and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56.
Al Halab Media Center. Establishment of the Limit upon the Corrupt in the Land (Al Halab Media Center, 2015), cited in The Children in Daesh: “Future Flag Bearers” of the “Caliphate” (The Carter Center, 2017) https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/countering-isis/children-in-daesh.pdf (Last Accessed November 20, 2019).
Almohammad, A. “ISIS Child Soldiers in Syria: The Structural and Predatory.”
AraNews. Last Accessed November 20, 2019. 9 January 2016. http://aranews.net/2016/01/syrian-teenage-girls-forcedto-marry-isis-jihadis-in-deir-ez-zor/.
Asaad, H. “Syrian Girls Forced to Marry ISIS Fighters.” Al-Monitor. May 12, 2014. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/05/syria-girls-marriage-isis-raqqa.html (Last Accessed November 20, 2019).
Awan, I. “Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media.” Society 54(2) (2017): 138-49.
Bakker, E., and J de Roy van Zuijdewijn. “Jihadist Foreign Fighter Phenomenon in Western Europe: A Low-Probability, High-Impact Threat.” (2015) International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT) Research Paper, The Hague <https://www.icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/ICCT-Bakker-DeRoyvanZuijdewijn-Jihadist-Foreign-Fighter-Phenomenon-in-Western-Europe-October2015.pdf> (Last Accessed December 2, 2019).
Becker, J. “Some Child Soldiers Get Rehabilitation, Others Get Prison.” Atlantic Council. March 4, 2019. www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/some-childsoldiers-get-rehabilitation-others-get-prison/.
Bentancout, T., and Others. “Sierra Leone’s Child Soldiers: War Exposures and Mental Health Problems by Gender.” Journal of Adolescent Health 49(1) (2011): 21-28.
Bisset, A. “What Rights Do the Children of Islamic State Have under International Law?.” The Conversation. February 28. 2019. http://theconversation.com/whatrights-do-the-children-of-islamic-state-have-under-international-law-112322 (Last Accessed January 7, 2020).
Bloom, M. “ISIS Terrorism Targets Children in Unthinkable Ways.” Newsweek. May 25, 2017. http://www.newsweek.com/islamic-states-terrorism-targets-children-unthinkable-ways-61457363.
Bont and Others. Life at ISIS: The Roles of Western Men, Women and Children. Security and Global Affairs, Leiden University, 2017.
Bowcott, O. and D. Sabbagh. “Shamima Begum Begins Appeal against Loss of UK Citizenship.” The Guardian. UK, October 22, 2019. www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/oct/22/shamima-begum-begins-appeal-against-loss-of-uk-citizenship.
Calderwood, I. “Teenage “Terror Twins” Who Fled Britain to Join ISIS Tried to Recruit Their Whole Family Telling Brothers: “We Might Seem Evil to You, but we will all be Happy in the Afterlife”’. Mail Online. October 4, 2015. <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3259363/Teenage-terror-twins-fled-Britain-join-ISIStried-recruit-familytelling-brothers-evil-happy-afterlife.html (Last Accessed November 29, 2019).
Callimachi, R. “ISIS Enshrines a Theology of Rape.” The New York Times. August 13, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/14/world/middleeast/isis-enshrines-a-theologyof-rape.html (Last Accessed December 5, 2019).
Charter, D. “Linda Wenzel, German Teen Who Joined Isis, Is Jailed for Six Years in Iraq.” The Sunday Times. February 18, 2018. www.thetimes.co.uk/article/linda-wenzel-german-teen-who-joined-isis-is-jailed-for-sixyears-in-iraq-r07k8lg76> (Last Accessed November 30, 2019).
Chulov, Martin. “Scorned and Stateless: Children of Isis Fighters Face an Uncertain Future.” The Guardian (The Guardian, London, UK). October 7, 2017. www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/07/children-isis-fighters-syria-raqqa-orphansuncertain-future (Last Accessed December 13, 2019).
Cook, J., and G. Vale. “From Daesh to “Diaspora”: Tracing the Women and Minors of Islamic State.” ICSR. 2018. https://icsr.info/wpcontent/uploads/2018/07/ICSRReport-From-Daesh-to%E2%80%98Diaspora%E2%80%99-Tracing-the-Womenand-Minors-of-Islamic-State.pdf (Last Accessed November 18, 2019).
Cottier, M. “Article 8.” in Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. ed. O Triffterer. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999.
Crane, D. “Prosecuting Children in Times of Conflict: The West African Experience.” Human Rights Brief 11(3) (2008): 15.
Crossland, D. “Germany Takes Back Four Children of Isis Fighters.” The Times. August 21, 2019. www.thetimes.co.uk/article/germany-takes-backfour-children-of-isis-fighters-0zfxcqd26#> (Last Accessed December 12, 2019).
Dearden, L. “How Isis Attracts Women and Girls from Europe with False Offer of “Empowerment.” The Independent (The Independent, London, UK). August 5, 2017. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/isis-jihadi-brides-islamicstate-womengirls-europe-british-radicalisation-recruitment-report-a7878681.html (Last Accessed November 28, 2019).
Decision on Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment (SCSL-2004-14-AR72(E)), 31 May 2004).
Drumbl, M. “Shifting Narratives: Ongwen and Lubanga on the Effects of ChildSoldiering.” Justice in Conflict. 2016. https://justiceinconflict.org/2016/04/20/shifting-narratives-ongwen-and-lubanga-on-the-effects-of-child-soldiering/ (Last Accessed December 13, 2019).
Drumbl, MA. “Reimagining Child Soldiers in International Law and Policy.” OUP (2012):142-43, 22.
Ensor, J., and R. Mendick. “Shamima Begum Was Cruel Enforcer in Isil’s Morality Police, Say Syrian Witnesses.” The Telegraph (The Telegraph, London, UK), April 3, 2019. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/13/shamima-begum-cruel-enforcer-isilsmorality-police-say-syrian/ (Last Accessed December 12, 2019).
EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.
Evans, M. “Three Missing London Schoolgirls “Travelling to Syria to Join Isil”.” The Telegraph (The Telegraph, London, UK). 2015. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11424884/Three-missing-British-schoolgirls-travel-to-Syria.html (Last Accessed November 29, 2019).
Finnegan, C., and E. Mclaughlin. “American Women, Children Who Lived under ISIS Transferred to US from Syria.” ABC News, June 5, 2019. https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/american-women-children-lived-isis-transferred-us-syria/story?id¼63505693.
Fox, M. “Child Soldiers and International Law: Patchwork Gains and Conceptual Debates.” (2005) 7 Human Rights Review 1(7) (2005): 27-48.
Gadher, D. “Isaac, 9, Feared to be the Youngest British Child Killed with Isis in Syria.” The Times. April 14, 2019. www.thetimes.co.uk/article/isaac-9-feared-to-be-the-youngest-british-child-killed-with-isis-in-syria-n8xq2j03t (Last Accessed December 10, 2019).
General Comment No 10 (2007). “Children’s Rights in Juvenile Justice.” CRC/C/GC/10, April 25, 2007, Committee on the Rights of the Child, Forty-fourth session, Geneva, para 32.
German Court Rules on Repatriation of Syria ISIL Fighter’s Family’ Aljazeera (Doha, Qatar, 11 June 2019) <www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/07/german-court-rulesrepatriation-
Hecker, T., and Others. “Appetitive Aggression in Former Combatants-Derived from the Ongoing Conflict in DR Congo.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 35(3) (2012): 244-49.
Hermenau, K., and Others. “Growing Up in Armed Groups: Trauma and Aggression among Child Soldiers in DR Congo.” European Journal of Psychotraumatology 4(1) (2013).
Hoffmann-La Roche v Commission (1979) ECJ; Case 49/88 Al-Jubail Fertilizer v Council (1991) ECJ; Case 66/90 Netherlands and Others v Commission (1992) ECJ; Case 48/90; Case 135/92 Fiskano v Commission (1994); Case 450/93 Lisrestal v Commission (1994) ECJ.
Hollingsworth, J. “Australian Children of ISIS Fighters Rescued from Syria.” CNN. July 3, 2019. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/24/australia/syria-isis-australia-intl-hnk/index.html (Last Accessed November 24, 2019).
Hope, A. “No Automatic Right of Return for Widows and Orphans of Dead Syria Fighters, Rules Court of Appeal.” The Brussels Times (Brussels, Belgium, February 28, 2019. www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/belgium-all-news/54061/no-automatic-rightof-return-for-widows-and-orphans-of-dead-syria-fighters-rules-court-of-appeal/.
“How Social Media is used to Encourage Travel to Syria and Iraq: Briefing Note for Schools.” Home Office UK (2015).
Hughes, C. “Teen Was Forced to Become ISIS Fighter’s Child Bride Aged Just 11’ The Mirror.” The Mirror. June 19, 2019. www.mirror.co.uk/news/worldnews/teen-forced-become-isis-fighters-16544042 (Last Accessed December 5, 2019).
Human Rights Watch. “Syria: US Coalition Should Address Civilian Harm.” 9 July 2019. www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/09/syria-us-coalition-should-address-civilian-harm (Last Accessed December 10, 2019).
ICC Press Release. “Warrant of Arrest unsealed against five LRA Commanders,” ICC-CPI-20051014-110, October 14, 2005.
“Inevitability Volatility and Friction in the Age of Disintermediation.” (2017) The International Counter-terrorism (2018) The Hague CCT Research Paper.
In January 2016, for example, a four-year-old British boy featured in an ISIS video apparently detonating a bomb that killed prisoners. See: J. Davenport and A. Hall, “Top Counter Terror Officer Warns of Threat Posed by Jihadi Children Returning to UK.” The Evening Standard (The Evening Standard, London, UK), February 1, 2018.
International Criminal Court. Last Accessed December 13, 2019. www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name¼2016-12-06-otp-statongwen.
Internationl Criminal Court. “Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, at the opening of Trial in the case against Dominic Ongwen.” December, 2016. www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name¼2016-12-06-otp-stat-ongwen.
Kelly, J. “Audi Alterant Partem.” The American Journal of Jurisprudence 9(1) (1964): 103-10.
Lafta, R., and Others. “Living in Mosul During the Time of ISIS and the Military Liberation: Results from a 40-cluster Household Survey.” Conflict and Health 12(31) (2018): 1.
Levallois, A. and J. Cousseran. “The Financing of the “Islamic State” in Syria and Iraq (ISIS).” (2017) European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies Policy Department.
Lloyd, A. “Shamima Begum: I Was Brainwashed. I Knew Nothing: The Isis Bride is Facing Up to a Life outside the UK.” The Times UK. April 1, 2019. www.thetimes.co.uk/article/isis-bride-shamima-begum-i-regret-everything-please-let-me-start-my-lif e-again-in-britain-9g0tn08vn (Last Accessed January 7, 2020).
Lokshina, T. “Will Russia Bring Home Children Who Lived under ISIS/the Islamic State?.” August 14, 2018. Human Rights Watch. www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/14/willrussia-bring-home-children-who-lived-under-isis/islamic-state (Last Accessed December 13, 2019).
Lubanga Conviction Decision.
Maher, S. “The Case of Shamima Begum Shows There Are No Easy Choices for the West as Isis Collapses.” New Statesman (London, UK). February 14, 2019. www.newstatesman.com/world/middle-east/2019/02/case-shamima-begum-shows-there-are-noeasy-choices-west-isis-collapses (Last Accessed December 13, 2019).
Mazurana, DE., and Others. “Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilization, and Reintegration.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 8(2) (2002): 97.
McDermott, Y. “Child Victim or Brutal Warlord? ICC Weighs the Fate of Dominic Ongwen.” The Conversation, January 11, 2017. https://theconversation.com/child-victim-or-brutal-warlord-icc-weighs-the-fate-of-dominic-ongwen-70087 (Last Accessed December 13, 2019).
McFarlane, A. “The Long-term Costs of Traumatic Stress: Intertwined Physical and Psychological Consequences.” World Psychiatry 9(1) (2010): 3-10.
Meleagrou-Hitchens, A., and N. Kaderbhai. Research Perspectives on Online Radicalisation: A Literature Review 2006–2016. International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (ICSR), King’s College London, 2017. https://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ICSR-Paper_Research-Perspectives-on-Online-Radicalisation-A-Literature-Review-2006-2016.pdf> (Last Accessed November 21, 2019).
Memri TV. “ISIS Music Video in French Featuring Children: Your Roads Will Be Rigged by Mines, Our Swords Are Sharpened to Slice Necks.” Memri TV. April 29, 2016. https://www.memri.org/tv/isis-music-video-french-featuring-children-yourroads-will-be-rigged-mines-our-swords-are (Last Accessed November 18, 2019).
N. Que´nivet. “Does and Should International Law Prohibit the Prosecution of Children for War Crimes?.” The European Journal of International Law 28(2) (2017): 433.
Oosterveld, WT., and W. Bloem. “The Rise and Fall of ISIS: From Evitability to Inevitability Volatility and Friction in the Age of Disintermediation.” The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS) StratMon Annual Report 2016/2017.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict; Adopted and Opened for Signature, Ratification and Accession by General Assembly Resolution A/RES/54/263 of 25 May 2000, entry into force 12 February 2002.
Peresin, A. “Why Women from the West are Joining ISIS.” International Annals of Criminology (Special Issue on Female Migration to ISIS) 56 (Special Issue 1-2) (2018): 32-42.
Perraudin, F. “Shamima Begum Tells of Fate Since Joining Isis During Half Term.” The Guardian. February 14, 2019. www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/14/shamimabegum-friends-kadiza-sultana-amira-abase-joined-isis-syria (Last Accessed January 7, 2020).
Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, ICC-01/04-01/06-2842, T.Ch. I, 14 March 2012 (hereinafter ‘Lubanga Judgment’) para 612.
Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, No ICC-01/04-01/06-803, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 29 January 2007, para 246.
Qassim, S. “Syrian Teenage Girls Forced to Marry ISIS Jihadis in Deir ez-Zor.” AraNews. January 9, 2016. http://aranews.net/2016/01/syrian-teenage-girls-forced-to-marry-isis-jihadis-in-deir-ez-zor/ (Last Accessed November 20, 2019).
“Radicalisation: A Literature Review 2006-2016.” (2017) International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (ICSR), King’s College London. https://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ICSR-Paper_Research-Perspectives-on-Online-Radicalisation-A-Literature-Review-2006-2016.pdf (Last Accessed November 21, 2019).
Ranstorp, M., and Others. “The Role of Gender in Violent Extremism.” RAN ISSUE PAPER 4/12/2015.
Reuters. “Belgium Takes Back Six Children of Isis Fighters from Syrian Camps.” 15 June 2019. www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/15/belgium-takes-back-six-children-of-isis-fighters-from-syrian-camp (Last Accessed November 25, 2019).
Rodenha¨ user, T. “What Does It Take to be a Non-State Armed Group?.” (OUPblog, OUP 2018).
“Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court.” A/CONE 183/2/Add.1 (14 April 1998) 21.10.19165/2018.1.14. ISSN: 2468-0656 1961 and entered into force on 13 December 1975.
Scherrer, A. and Others. “The Return of Foreign Fighters: An Ex-post Evaluation.” European Parliamentary Research Service, European Parliament 26 (2018).
Smyth, J., and A. England. “UN Urges Repatriation of Isis Family Members.” The Financial Times (The Financial Times, London, UK). June 24, 2019. www.ft.com/content/33b71286-9637-11e9-8cfb-30c211dcd229 (Last Accessed November 22, 2019).
Sommerville, Q. “Shamima Begum: What Was life Like for the IS Couple in Syria?.” BBC. March 3, 2009. www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east 47435039> (Last Accessed November 21, 2019).
Strobel, W., and G. Lubold. “US Is Bringing Home Citizen Suspected of Fighting for ISIS.” Wall Street Journal (New York, USA). June 18, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-is-bringing-home-citizen-suspected-of-fighting-for-isis-11563496749 (Last Accessed December 12, 2019).
The Children in Daesh: “Future Flag Bearers” of the “Caliphate”’ The Carter Center (2017).
The Children of ISIS: The Indoctrination of Minors in ISIS-Held Territory. The Hague: Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2017. https://english.aivd.nl/publications/publications/2017/04/26/thechildren-of-isis.-the-indoctrination-of-minors-in-isis-held-territoryee>; UNICEF. “The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated With Armed Forces or Armed Groups.” http://www.un.org/children/conflict/_documents/parisprinciples/ParisPrinciples_EN.pdf (Last Accessed August 31, 2019).
The Daily Beast. “ISIS Fighters Pray Before Raping Girls.” April 14, 2017. www.thedailybeast.com/cheats/2015/08/13/isis-fighters-pray-before-raping-girls-or-isis-usesfaith-to-justify-child-rape (Last Accessed January 7, 2020).
The Telegraph (The Telegraphy, London, UK). “Jihadi Jack: Isis Fighter Stripped of British Citizenship by Home Office.” August 18, 2019. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/17/jihadi-jack-isisfighter-stripped-british-citizenship-home-office (Last Accessed December 12, 2019).
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
UN General Assembly. “Children and Armed Conflict.” August, 24 2017. Report of the Secretary-General A/72/361–S/2017/821. Al Halab Media Center, Establishment of the Limit upon the Corrupt in the Land (Al Halab Media Center, 2015), cited in The Children in Daesh: “Future Flag Bearers” of the “Caliphate” (The Carter Center, 2017) <https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/.
UN Security Council Counterterrorism Committee. “Foreign Terrorist Fighters.” June 10, 2019. www.un.org/sc/ctc/focus-areas/foreign-terrorist-fighters/ (Emphasis added).
UN Security Council Resolution Counter-terrorism Committee, “S/RES/2178 (2014) -Addressing the Growing Issue of Foreign Terrorist Fighters.” Adopted by the Security Council at its 7272nd meeting, on 24 September 2014.
UN Security Council. “ISIL Now “A Covert Global Network” Despite Significant Losses, United Nations Counter-Terrorism Head Tells Security Council.” August 23, 2018. www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13463.doc.htm (Last Accessed November 22, 2019).
UNODC. Handbook on Children Recruited and Exploited by Terrorist and Violent Extremist Groups: The Role of the Justice System (UN Vienna 2017) (hereinafter‘UNODC, 2017).
Vale, G. “Cubs in the Lions, Den: Indoctrination and Recruitment of Children within Islamic State Territory.” ICSR. 2018. <https://icsr.info/wpcontent/uploads/2018/07/ICSR-Report-Cubs-in-the-Lions%E2%80%99-Den-Indoctrination-and-Recruitment-of-Children-Within-Islamic-State Territory.pdf> (Last Accessed November 18, 2019).
Waldron, J. “The Rule of International Law.” Harvard J Law & Public Policy 15(30) (2006).
Walsh, P. “ISIS Brides Flee Caliphate as Noose Tightens on Terror Group.” CNN. July 17, 2017. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/07/17/middleeast/raqqa-isis-brides/index.html (Last Accessed December 5, 2019).
Wintour, P. “Trump: EU Must Take Back 800 Isis Fighters Captured in Syria.” The Guardian (The Guardian, London, UK). February 17, 2019. www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/17/islamic-state-isis-baghuz-trump-calls-on-european-allies-to-take-800-fighters-captured-in-syria (Last Accessed January 7, 2020).