1استادیار دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی.
2دانشجوی دکترای حقوق بین الملل، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی.
چکیده
اسناد بشردوستانه به ممنوعیت استفاده از سپر انسانی اذعان داشته و اساسنامه دیوان کیفری بین المللی نیز به صراحت آن را از مصادیق جنایت جنگی قلمداد می کند. با این حال شرایط تحقق جرم استفاده از سپر انسانی چندان روشن نیست. مقاله حاضر سعی دارد نقض ممنوعیت استفاده از سپر انسانی به عنوان یکی از مصادیق جنایات جنگی و عناصر و شرایط تحقق آن را بررسی کند. دیگر نقطه تمرکز مهم این پژوهش مسأله استفاده از سپر انسانی در مخاصمات غیر بینالمللی است که اسناد بین المللی در خصوص آن ساکت به نظر میرسند.
These days we hear many news about using poor people as Human Shield, while Humanitarian regulations have prohibited this action absolutely, even Statute of International Criminal Court (ICC) has considered it as a War Crime. This article surveys the violation of the prohibition on using of Human Shield as a War Crime and its necessary elements and conditions too. On the other hand, whereas Statute of ICC enumerates it as a War Crime in International Armed Conflicts expressly, possibility or not being a War Crime in Non-International Armed Conflicts will be surveyed as well.
کلیدواژهها [English]
Human Shield, War Crime, International Armed Conflicts, Non-International Armed Conflicts, International Criminal Court (ICC)
مراجع
منابع فارسی
1. ساک، کریانگ و کیتی شیایزری. حقوق بین المللی کیفری. ترجمه بهنام یوسفیان و محمد اسماعیلی. تهران: سمت، 1383.
2. هنکرتز، ژانماری، لوئیس دوسوالدبک. حقوق بین المللی بشردوستانه عرفی. تهران: مجمع علمی و فرهنگی مجد، 1387.
منابع انگلیسی
1. Adalah, TheLegalCentreforArabMinorityRightsinIsraelvGOCCentralCommand, IDF (2006) HCJ 3799/02. Accessed April 10, 2013, available in English from http://elyon1.court.gov.il/eng/home/index.html.
2. Al-Duaij, Nada. “The Volunteer Human Shields in International Humanitarian Law”. OregonReviewofInternationalLaw 12 (2008): 117-140.
3. Amnesty International. “Gaza: Military Tactics on Both Sides Endangering Civilians”. Accessed January 4, 2013. Available at: http://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID=18000.
5. Benvenisti, Eyal. “Human Dignity in Combat: the Duty to Spare Enemy Civilians”. IsraelLawReview 39 (2006): 81-109.
6. Blank, Laurie R. “Taking Distinction to the Next Level: Accountability for Fighters’ Failure to Distinguish Themselves from Civilians”. ValparaisoUniversityLawReview (2012): 765-802.
7. Christensen, Eric R. “The Dilemma of Direct Participation in Hostilities”. TheUniversityofTexasPress (2009): 281-309.
8. Dörmann, Knut, Louise Doswald-Beck and Robert Kolb. ElementsofWarCrimesundertheRomeStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt: SourcesandCommentary. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
9. Dörmann, Knut. “War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, with a Special Focus on the Negotiation on the Elements of Crimes”. MaxPlanckYearbookoftheUnitedNationsLaw 7 )2003(: 341-407.
10. European Court of Human Rights. “Soeringv. UnitedKingdom”. Judgement of 7 July 1989. Application No. 14038/88.
11. Fenrick, William J. “Justice in Cataclysm Criminal Trials in the Wake of Mass Violence: Comment: Attacking the Enemy Civilian as a Punishable Offense”. DukeJournalofComparativeandInternationalLaw 7 (1997): 539-570.
12. Fischer, Douglas H. “Human Shields, Homicides, and House Fires: How a Domestic Law Analogy Can Guide International Law Regarding Human Shield Tactics in Armed Conflict”. AmericanUniversityLawReview (2007): 479-521.
13. Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, and Louise Doswald-Beck, CustomaryInternationalHumanitarianLaw, Vol. II. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
14. High Court of Justice of Israel. “EarlyWarningCase”, Available at: http://elyon1.court.gov.il/Files_ENG/02/990/037/a32/02037990.a32. pdf
15. Human Rights Watch. “In a Dark Hour – the Use of Civilians during IDF Arrest Operations”. April 2002.
16. Human Rights Watch. “Off Target: the Conduct of the War and Civilian Casualties in Iraq”. (2003).
17. Human Rights Watch. “International Humanitarian Law Issues in a Potential War with Iraq”. HumanRightsWatchBriefingPaper. February 20, 2003. available at: http://hrw.org/backgrounder/arms/iraq0202003.htm#1
18. Human Rights Watch. “Israel/Occupied Territories: Jenin War Crimes Investigation Needed”. Accessed January 10, 2013. Available at:http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2002/05/02/israeloccupied-territories-jenin-war-crimesinvestigation-needed.
19. Human Rights Watch. “Israel: Decision to Stop Use of “Human Shields Welcomed”. Accessed January 10, 2013. Available at:
20. Human Rights Watch. Genocide, WarCrimes, andCrimesagainstHumanity: aTopicalDigestoftheCaseLawoftheInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2006.
21. ICRC. “The Law of Armed Conflict, Conduct of Operations”. Part A. InternationalReviewofRedCross. 2002.
22. ICRC/International Institute of Humanitarian Law, 30th San Remo Round Table on Current Issues of International Humanitarian Law, “The Conduct of Hostilities, Background Document”. August 2007.
23. ICTY. “TheProsecuterv. DuskoTadic”. Case No. IT-94-1-AR72.
24. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. Aleksovki”. Appeal Chamber, Case No. IT-95-14/1-A. March 24, 2000.
25. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. Aleksovki”. Trial Chamber, Judgement. Case No. IT-95-14/1-T, June 25, 1999.
26. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. Blaskic”. Appeals Chamber, Case No. IT-95-14-A, July 29, 2004.
27. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. DragoljubKunaracandOthers”, Appeals Chamber, Judgement. Case No. IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1-A.
28. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. Kordic”. Trial Chamber, Judgement. Case No. T-95-14/2-T, February 26, 2001.
29. ICTY. “TheProsecutorv. ZejnilDelalic, ZdravkoMunicic, HazimDelic, EsadLansdo”, (Celebici Case). Case No. IT-96-21-T, Trial Chamber, November 16, 1998.
30. Lyall, Rewi. “Voluntary Human Shields, Direct Participation in Hostilities and the International Humanitarian Law Obligations of States”. MelbourneJournalofInternationalLaw 9 (2008).
32. Pilloud, C., Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B., Zimmermann, CommentaryontheAdditionalProtocolsof 8 June 1977 totheGenevaConventionsof 12 August 1949. International Committee of Red Cross. Geneva: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987.
33. Quéguiner, Jean-Francois. “Precautions under the Law Governing the Conduct of Hostilities”. InternatioanlReviewofRedCross 88 (2006): 793- 821.
34. Report on the Seminar on International Humanitarian Law and Current Armed Conflicts: the Involvement of the Civilian Population in Hostilities, February 25, 2011.
35. Rosen, Richard D. “Targeting Enemy Forces in the War on Terror: Preserving Civilian Immunity”. VanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw 42 (2009): 683-777.
36. Rubinstein, Amnon and Yaniv Roznai. “Human shields in Modern Armed Conflicts: the Need for a Proportionate Proportionality”. StanfordLawandPolicyReview 22 (2011): 93-128.
37. Sassoli, Marco and Lindsey Cameron. “The Protection of Civilian Objects: Current State of the Law and Issues De Lege Ferenda”, theLawofAirWarfare: ContemporaryIssues (2006): 35-74. Available at: http://archiveouverte.unige.ch/vital/access/services/Download/unige:9742/ATTACHMENT01
38. Schmitt, Michael N. “Deconstructing Direct Participation in Hostilities: the Constitutive Elements”. InternationalLawandPolitics 42 (2010): 697-739.
39. Schmitt, Michael N. “Human Shields in International Humanitarian Law”. IsraelYearbookonHumanRights (2009): 17-59.
40. Schmitt, Michael N. “Precision Attack and International Humanitarian Law”. InternationalReviewoftheRedCross 87 (2005): 445-466.
41. Schoenekase, Daniel P. “Targeting Decisions Regarding Human Shields”. MilitaryReview 84 (2004): 26-31
42. The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/134, U.N. Doc. A/RES/46/134. December 17, 1991.
43. U.N. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1992/71. “Situation of Human Rights in Iraq”. U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1992/94. March 5, 1992.
44. United Nations Security Council Resolution 664. August 18, 1990.
45. United Nations. “Human Rights in Palestine and Other Occupied Territories - Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict”. Accessed February 2, 2013. Available at: http://image.guardian.co.uk/sysfiles/Guardian/documents/2009/09/15/UNFFMGCReport.pdf.
46. Van Der Vyver, Johan D. “Legal Ramifications of the War in Gaza”. FloridaJournalofInternationalLaw 21 (2009): 403-448.
47. Willmott, Deidre. “Removing the Distinction between International and non-International Armed Conflict in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”. MelbourneJournalofInternationalLaw 5 (2004).
48. Yihdego, Zeray. “The Gaza Mission: Implications for International Humanitarian Law and UN Fact Finding”, MelbourneJournalofInternationalLaw 6 (2012): 159-213.