Journal of Legal Research

Journal of Legal Research

The Effects of U.S. Sanctions Against Iranian Shipping and the Resulting International Responsibility

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
1 Associate Professor, Department of Law, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran.
2 PhD Student in International Law, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran.
3 Assistant Professor, Department of International Law, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran.
Abstract
This article examines the sanctions imposed by the United States against Iran’s shipping sector and analyzes their economic and legal consequences at both the domestic and international levels. The principal objective of the study is to assess the impact of these sanctions on the Iranian economy, particularly in the areas of oil exports and maritime transportation, and to evaluate the issue of international responsibility arising from such measures within the framework of international law. The study adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology, drawing upon library sources, prior scholarly studies, and a historical examination of the evolution of sanctions regimes. The findings indicate that the sanctions in question have had substantial effects on the Iranian economy. These effects include a significant reduction in oil exports as Iran’s primary source of foreign currency revenue, increased maritime transportation costs, restricted access to international financial and banking services, and the weakening of Iran’s maritime operational capacity due to difficulties in obtaining equipment and technical support. From a legal perspective, these sanctions have generated important challenges within the field of international law. A number of legal analyses regard such measures as potentially inconsistent with principles including non-interference in domestic affairs, freedom of navigation, international cooperation, and international human rights standards. Consequently, these considerations may provide a basis for examining the international responsibility of the sanctioning state. In addition, the indirect effects of sanctions on public access to essential goods, medicine, and humanitarian resources have raised serious concerns regarding compliance with international human rights obligations. In this respect, the article highlights the broader humanitarian implications of unilateral coercive measures and their possible tension with fundamental principles of international human rights law. Overall, findings suggest that the sanctions imposed against Iran’s shipping sector have produced not only extensive economic consequences but also complex legal and political challenges within the broader sphere of international law and international relations. Addressing these challenges requires meticulous legal analysis, effective multilateral diplomacy, and greater attention to the balance between state sovereignty, economic coercive measures, and the protection of fundamental human rights.
Keywords

Abdollahi, Mohsen, Parisa Roshanfekr va Zahra Dabiri. “The Effectiveness of Countermeasures as a Guarantee for the Enforcement of Human Rights”. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Bayn al-Melal, 32, 53(1394), 128-150. (in Persian)
Abedini, Hassan va Jahanbakhsh Izadi. “The Role of Domestic Variables in the Policymaking of the Eleventh Government’s Nuclear Negotiations”. Motale'at-e Rahbordi-ye Siasatgozari-ye Omumi, 7, 25(1396), 271-289. (in Persian)
Alaei, Somayeh. “International Responsibility of States and Unilateral Sanctions”. The Fifth International and National Conference on Management, Accounting and Law Studies. Tehran, 4 Azar 1400. (in Persian)
Alimohammadi, Rezvan. “Examining the Legality of Unilateral U.S. Sanctions in the Post-JCPOA Era from the Perspective of International Law”. Pazhuhesh-e Melal, 5, 58(1399), 8-20. (in Persian)
Amir Arjomand, Ardeshir va Mohammad Habibi Mojandeh. “Examining the Status of Intellectual Property Rights in the Human Rights System”. Nameh-ye Mofid, 52(1384), 3-24. (in Persian)
Bayezidi, Rahim va Seyyed Saeid Mirtorabi. “Sanctions on the Shipping Industry of the Islamic Republic of Iran: Trend Analysis, Dimensions and Objectives”. Faslnameh-ye Mohitshenasi-ye Rahbordi-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Iran, 6, 21(1401), 9-40. (in Persian)
Bozorgi, Vahid. “Sanctions and Political and Security Considerations in the World Trade Organization”. Faslnameh-ye Pazhuheshhaye Tejarat-e Jahani, 16-17(1388), 7-19. (in Persian)
Crawford, James. “Third Report on State Responsibility”. 1971. Doc. A/CN.4/241 and ADD.1-6. (In English)
Crawford, James. The Law of International Responsibility (General Rules). مترجمین Alireza Ebrahimgol va Siamak Karimi. Chap-e Aval. Tehran: Entesharat-e Sangelaj, 1395. (in Persian)
Department of State. Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights between the United States of America and Iran, 1955. (In English)
Ebrahimgol, Alireza. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, State Responsibility, Text and Commentary on the Articles of the International Law Commission. Tehran: Entesharat-e Mo'asseseh-ye Motale'at va Pazhuheshhaye Hoquqi-ye Shahr-e Danesh, 1389. (in Persian)
Ezzati, Morteza va Younes Salmani. “Examining the Direct and Indirect Effects of Sanctions on Iran’s Economic Growth with Emphasis on the External Sector of the Economy”. Faslnameh-ye Afaq-e Amniyat, 7, 25(1393), 170-189. (in Persian)
Foroughinia, Hossein, Mohammad Naqavi Marmati va Ali Naqi Marmati. “The Nature of States’ Obligations Regarding the Right to Food from the Perspective of International Human Rights Law and Humanitarian Law”. Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Bashar-e Eslami, 7(1393), 133-159. (in Persian)
Garfield, Richard. “The Impact of Economic Sanctions on Health and Well-being”. Network Paper RRN, 31(1999), 1-34. (In English)
Gholami, Hossein va Qasem Dashtbani. “Effects and Consequences of the Economic Sanctions Imposed by the United States of America”. Faslnameh-ye Cheshmandaz-e Hesabdari va Modiriyyat, 4, 50(1400), 121-142. (in Persian)
Gholizadeh, Heydar va Samad Ghaem Panah. “The International Responsibility of the United States Arising from the Imposition of Unilateral Sanctions against the Islamic Republic”. Faslnameh-ye Olum-e Siasi, 14, 43(1397), 211-220. (in Persian)
Graham Evans, Ivan va Jeffrey Newnham. Dictionary of International Relations. Tarjomeh Homeira Moshirzadeh va Hossein Sharifi Tarazkouhi. Tehran, Nashr-e Mizan, 1381. (in Persian)
Haddadi, Mehdi. “Invocation of State Responsibility Arising from the Breach of Erga Omnes Obligations”. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Bayn al-Melali, 42, 97(1398), 21-39. (in Persian)
Hajiani, Hossein va Fatemeh Keshavarz. “The JCPOA Agreement from the Perspective of the Constitution of Iran and Domestic Treaties”. The First Scientific Research Conference on New Approaches in Iranian Humanities, Ilam, 1396. (in Persian)
Hejazi, Seyyed Amraldin va Mohammadali Solhchi. “The United Nations Security Council and Its Impact on the Establishment of International Criminal Security and Justice”. Faslnameh-ye Pazhuhesh-e Hoquq-e Keyfari, 9, 33(1399), 9-46. Doi: 10.22054/jclr.2020.45294.1967 (in Persian)
Henckaerts, Jean-Marie and Louise Doswald-Beck. Customary International Humanitarian Law. London: Cambridge University Press, 2005. (In English)
Ijazi, Mohammad Hamid. “Determining the Role and Position of the Resistance Economy after the Lifting of Sanctions”. National Conference on Basij Thinking, Research and Resistance Economy, 1400. (in Persian)
Iranmanesh, Saeid, Nourallah Salehi va Seyyed Abdolmajid Jalaei Esfandabadi. “Ranking Economic Sanctions against the Islamic Republic of Iran Using the Opinions of Selected International Economics Activists and Graduates”. Majalleh-ye Majles va Rahbord, 28, 108(1400), 257-296. Doi: 10.22034/mr.2021.4110.4099 (in Persian)
Joyner, Daniel H. Iran’s Nuclear Program and International Law: From Confrontation to Accord. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. (In English)
Karamzadeh, Siamak. “Recognition and Enforcement of U.S. Court Judgments against the Assets of the Central Bank of Iran from the Perspective of International Law and U.S. Law”. Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Tatbiqi, 9, 1(1397), 351-379. Doi: 10.22059/jcl.2018.247831.633598 (in Persian)
Kern, Alexander Samuel. Economic Sanctions: Law and Public Policy. UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. (In English)
Khabargozari-ye Mehr Online. “German Court Ruling in Favor of Bank Melli Iran in Hamburg”. Shomareh Ruznameh 5571. Shomareh Khabar 3908297. 24/7/1401. (in Persian)
Khajavi, Gholamreza. “Economic Sanctions from the Perspective of International Law with Emphasis on International Economic Law and the Right to Development”. Daneshnameh-ye Hoquq-e Eqtesadi, 2(1391), 31-50. (in Persian)
Khosravi Zargari, Moslem, Somayeh Bakhshi va Zahra Bakhshi. “The Political Experience of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the Nuclear Issue and Its Role in the JCPOA Nuclear Agreement”. The First National Conference on the Nuclear Agreement: From Implementation to Future Opportunities, 1395, 201-210. (in Persian)
Kohansal, Ahmadreza. “Examining the Current Conditions of the Shipbuilding and Ship Repair Industry and the Factors Affecting It”. The Fourteenth Maritime Conference, Tehran, 1391. (in Persian)
Kondoch, Boris. “The Limits of Economic Sanctions Under International Law: The Case of Iraq”. The Yearbook of International Peace Operations, International Peacekeeping, 7(2002), 267-294. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004208438_010 (In English)
Magnusson, Finnur. “Targeted Sanctions and Accountability of the United Nations Security Council”. Austrian Review of International and European Law Online, 13, 1(2008), 35-78. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736512-90000028 (In English)
Mehrban, Ahmad. “The Relationship between Threats and Vulnerabilities in the Field of National Security with an Emphasis on Sanctions”. Faslnameh-ye Motale'at-e Defa'i-ye Rahbordi, 17, 76(1398), 131-153. (in Persian)
Miko, Samantha. “Al-Skeini v. United Kingdom and Extraterritorial Jurisdiction under the European Convention on Human Rights”. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 35(2013), 63-79. (In English)
Mohammadi, Amirhossein, Hossein Farahi, Saeid Mansouri va Hamidreza Alikhani Kordshami. “U.S. Sanctions against Iran from the Perspective of the 1955 Treaty of Amity (with Emphasis on the Views of American Think Tanks and Media)”. Pazhuheshnameh-ye Resaneh-ye Bayn al-Melal, 7, 1(1401), 131-156. (in Persian)
Mojtahedi, Mohammadreza. “An Introduction to International Investment Dispute Settlement Law Based on the ICSID Arbitration Convention”. Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Tatbiqi-ye Mo'aser, 2، 3(1390)، 175-199. (in Persian)
Montazeran, Javid. “The Legitimacy of Unilateral U.S. Sanctions against Iran, Center for Strategic Studies of the Presidency”, 1397. Qabel-e Dastresi dar: http://www.css.ir/fa/content/114750 (in Persian)
Mousavi Mirkalaei, Seyyed Taha. “The Legal Personality of State-Owned Companies and State Asset Immunity in the Case of Certain Iranian Assets”. Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Omumi, 51, 3(1400), 995-1021. https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2020.308258.2522 (in Persian)
Mousavi, Fazlollah, Fazlollah Jokar va Omran Mohammadi. “Unilateral U.S. Sanctions against Iran: Contradictions in Discourse and Practice and the Politicization of Human Rights”. Faslnameh-ye Pazhuhesh-e Hoquq-e Omumi, 16, 44(1393), 149-173. (in Persian)
Mousavian, Hossein. Analysis of Iran’s Nuclear Policies from the Beginning to the Change of the Nuclear Negotiating Team. Tehran: Vezarat-e Omur-e Kharejeh, 1393. (in Persian)
Movahed, Mohammadali. “A Report on Iran’s Case before the International Court of Justice against the United States concerning the Destruction of Oil Platforms”. Faslnameh-ye Tahqiqat-e Hoquqi, 7, 39(1383), 345-365. (in Persian)
Musazadeh, Reza va Ahmadreza Azar Pendar. “The Impacts of Human Rights on the System of International Responsibility of States”. Nashriyeh-ye Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Omumi, 53, 1(1402), 208-219. (in Persian)
Naqdi, Farzaneh. “Banking and Financial Sanctions, International Negotiations, and the Political Economy of the Islamic Republic of Iran”. Faslnameh-ye Motale'at-e Khavarmiyaneh, 30, 111(1402), 1-22. (in Persian)
Nguyen, Quoc Dinh, Patrick Daillier va Alain Pellet. Public International Law. Tarjomeh Hasan Habibi. Tehran: Ettela'at, 1382. (in Persian)
Norouzi, Meysam. “The International Responsibility of States Arising from Failure to Implement Decisions of the International Criminal Court”. Nashriyeh-ye Pazhuhesh-e Melal, 2, 22(1396), 18-30. (in Persian)
Nourani, Seyyed Amir Sina. “Examining Unilateral Economic Sanctions in International Law: The Case of the United States”. Majalleh-ye Motale'at-e Bayn al-Melali, 18, 71(1400), 53-75. (in Persian)
Piri, Mehdi va Reza Sohrabi. “United States Extraterritorial Sanctions against Iran and Their Compatibility with the Rules of the World Trade Organization”. Faslnameh-ye Motale'at-e Hoquq-e Omumi, 50, 4(1399), 1545-1565. https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2020.291517.2208 (in Persian)
Rahim Khoei, Elnaz va Hossein Rostamzad. “Analysis and Critique of the European Court of Human Rights’ Performance in Addressing Alleged Violations of Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights”. Majalleh-ye Hoquqi-ye Bayn al-Melali, 34, 56(1396), 823-859. DOI: 10.22066/cilamag.2017.25173. (in Persian)
Sadeghi Haghighi, Didokht. “Flags of Convenience after the 1982 Convention”. International Conference on Developments in the International Law of the Sea Twenty Years after the Entry into Force of the Law of the Sea Convention, 1392. (in Persian)
Salehi, Javad. “Iran’s Economy and U.S. Sanctions”. San'at-e Nassaji va Pushak, 300(1398), 60. (in Persian)
Seyyedmashhadi, Pardis al-Sadat, Farhad Qalambaz va Ali Asghar Esfandiari. “The Importance of the Oil Industry in Creating Production and Employment in Iran’s Economy and Its Impact on Other Economic Activities”. Pazhuheshhaye Roshd va Towse'eh-ye Eqtesadi, 1, 2(1390), 133-161. (in Persian)
Shahnazizadeh, Seyyed Reza, Garineh Keshishian, Hassan Khodaverdi va Mohammadreza Dehshiri. “Opportunities, Threats and Strategies Facing the Energy Diplomacy of the Islamic Republic of Iran within the Framework of Regional Political Economy”. Faslnameh-ye Tahqiqat-e Siasi va Bayn al-Melali, 11, 41(1398), 79-91. (in Persian)
Sharegh, Zahra Sadat va Alireza Mohammadi Motlagh. “International Responsibility of Coalition Member States in the Yemen Conflict in Light of the Internationalization of the Conflict”. Faslnameh-ye Afaq-e Amniyat, 9, 33(1395), 173-208. (in Persian)
Tahmasbi, Javad. “How Can Iran’s Banking Structure Be Reformed? Banks in the Post-Sanctions Era”. Tejarat-e Farda. 24 Bahman 1394. Qabel-e Dastresi dar: https://www.tejaratefarda.com/fa/tiny/news-20762 (in Persian)
Tayebi, Sobhan va Shirin Shirazian. An Introduction to the International Responsibility of States for Environmental Damages. Chap-e Aval. Tehran: Entesharat-e Khorsandi, 1398. (in Persian)
Tazesh, Abdollah. The Trend of Sanctions in Iran and the Role of Energy during the Sanctions Era. Tehran: Andisheh-ye Talaei, 1400. (in Persian)
Valizadeh Berimanlou, Qasem. “Examining the Impact of Sanctions Removal and the Post-JCPOA Era on Iran’s Economy from Different Perspectives”. The Third International Conference on Modern Research in Management, Economics and Humanities, Georgia. (in Persian)
Vermeer-Künzli, Annemarieke. “Invocation of Responsibility”. In: Nollkaemper, André and Ilias Plakokefalos, eds. Principles of Shared Responsibility in International Law: An Appraisal of the State of the Art. Shared Responsibility in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014, 251-283. (In English)
Vesali, Sanaz va Mehrnoush Torabi. “The Effects of Banking Sanctions on the Economy and the Banking System”. Mahnameh-ye Bank va Eqtesad, 111(1389), 21-38. (in Persian)
Zarei Hadak, Mohammad, Iraj Rezaeinejad va Ali Babaei Mehr. “Legal Challenges of Unilateral U.S. Sanctions and Their Impact on the Right to Health in Light of the Provisional Order of the International Court of Justice (Case Study: Iran)”. Rahbord-e Siasi, 5, 18(1400), 35-50. (in Persian)
Ziaei Bigdeli, Mohammadreza. The Law of International Treaties. Chap-e Aval. Tehran: Entesharat-e Ganj-e Danesh, 1387. (in Persian)